Black cats, the number 13, finding a four-leaf clover, or walking under a ladder—these are all common examples of superstitions, arbitrary events that, depending on your perspective, signify either good or bad luck. Historically, we can trace the origins of many of these beliefs back through centuries of human culture, often discovering that they come from primitive ideas or symbolic gestures passed down through generations. For example, walking under a ladder was once thought to break the "holy triangle" between heaven, earth, and the spirit world, thus inviting bad luck. Similarly, black cats were often associated with witchcraft during the Middle Ages, cementing their reputation as omens of misfortune.
However, not all superstitions are steeped in history. Many are personal, developed over time based on individual experiences. Perhaps you have a lucky charm you wear to job interviews or always use the same phrase to say goodnight to loved ones. Sports superstitions are particularly widespread—like wearing the same unwashed jersey for every game to ensure a win. Regardless of whether they started thousands of years ago or were born during your college years, the question remains: why do we engage in these seemingly odd behaviors known as superstitions?
Contingency-Shaped Behavior
Most modern and personal superstitions come from incorrect assumptions about cause and effect (Foster & Kokko, 2009). You forgot to wash your Cowboys t-shirt before the game so you grab it out of the dirty laundry basket and put it on, several hours later, the Cowboys win! Next week you remembered to wash the same t-shirt, you wear the clean shirt to the viewing party, several hours later, the Cowboys are defeated horribly. That shirt is never getting washed again.
Contingency-shaped behavior is behavior that has been learned by directly experiencing the consequences of the behaver’s actions (Foxylearning). A classic example of this is touching a hot stove and getting burned. You experienced the contingency first hand and learned to avoid touching hot stoves in the future or you will get burned. The cause and effect in this example are correctly assigned, the hot stove equals a burnt hand.
Contingency-shaped superstitions appear when the cause and effect are not correlated. Skinner’s paper “Superstition in the Pigeon” (Skinner, 1948) demonstrated how non-contingent reinforcement caused ‘superstitious’ behavior in pigeons. Food pellets were given to the pigeon on a fixed interval schedule regardless of the bird’s behaviors, but they became conditioned to engage in ‘superstitious’ rituals that they just happened to do when the food first appeared. The response was varied in all the birds, ranging from pendulum motions, head thrusts, and turning around counter-clockwise, but the frequency of these behaviors, which were previously not present in strong numbers during adaptation to the cage, increased to 5 to 6 instances in a 15 second interval. This study was replicated by Wagner and Morris with children using tangible reinforcement (Wagner & Morris, 1987).
Whether we call them superstitions, rituals, or phobias, we all likely have some contingency-shaped behavior that does not correlate with reality. Next time you decide to wear your lucky outfit to a job interview or first date, analyze your history of reinforcement with that object. Was it really the cause of your success?
Rule-Governed Behavior
While contingency-shaped behavior is learned through direct experience, rule-governed behavior occurs when someone else provides the contingency. For example, instead of touching the stove to learn that it’s hot, someone might tell you, "Don’t touch the stove—it’s hot!" This method is far more efficient, as you don't have to learn through trial and error (Cerutti, 1989). Cultural, religious, and historical superstitions are often passed down through rule-governed behavior.
Take, for example, the practice of saying "God bless you" after someone sneezes. Today, this phrase is considered polite social behavior, but it originated from the belief that the soul might escape during a sneeze or that sneezing expelled evil spirits (Library of Congress). This custom likely began as contingency-shaped behavior, as people may have observed that illness (often seen as related to evil spirits) followed sneezing. Over time, it evolved into a rule-governed behavior—one that is taught to children, reinforced by social approval, and followed without questioning its original function.
However, rule-governed behavior can lose its influence if certain conditions aren't met. If the rule is poorly explained, comes from a non-credible source, or lacks reinforcement, individuals may be less likely to follow it (Törneke et al., 2008). Most of us learned these superstitions from our parents, who were credible figures and likely provided reinforcement (e.g., social approval) when we followed the rules. However, the original functions of these rituals may have been lost over time, making them more symbolic than practical.
The Ethics of Superstitions in Professional Practice
While personal superstitions may be harmless, there’s an important distinction to be made when considering professional practices, especially in fields like ABA, where objective data and evidence-based practices are paramount. As behavior analysts, it is crucial to be aware of superstitions or rituals that may inadvertently shape our professional decisions. Ethical practice requires that interventions and recommendations be grounded in scientific evidence, not personal rituals or coincidental reinforcement. While wearing a lucky tie to a meeting might boost your confidence, using unverified techniques in clinical practice based on anecdotal successes crosses an ethical boundary.
Conclusion
Should we abandon rule-governed superstitions that conflict with our own learning history? That largely depends on the value of social reinforcement to each individual (Whitbourne, 2014). If social approval or the avoidance of disapproval is more important to you than avoiding behaviors you know are rooted in faulty correlations, you’ll likely continue engaging in them. Contingency-shaped superstitions can be harder to break, as they develop over time without us realizing it. If you catch yourself engaging in superstitious rituals—whether it’s wearing a lucky outfit or following a pre-game routine—take a moment to analyze the situation. Are these behaviors based on real, tangible outcomes? Or are they simply rituals tied to past experiences?
At the end of the day, engaging in a few harmless superstitions—provided they're not illegal or dangerous—can add a little fun or comfort to life. Just be aware of the distinction between personal rituals and evidence-based decisions, especially when the stakes are higher than whether your favorite team wins or loses.
References
Cerutti, D. T. (1989). Discrimination Theory of Rule-Governed Behavior. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 51, 259-276
Everyday Mysteries. (August 14, 2017) The Library of Congress. Retrieved September 20, 2017 from https://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/mysteries/sneeze.html
Foster, K. R., & Kokko, H. (2009). The evolution of superstitious and superstition-like behaviour. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 276(1654), 31–37.
Fox, E. J., An Introduction to Relational Frame Theory- Lesson 15: Implications and Applications Retrieved September 20, 2017 from https://foxylearning.com/tutorials/rft/15/5015-0813
Skinner, B. F. (1948). Superstition in the Pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 168-172.
Törneke, N., Luciano, C., & Salas, S. V. (2008). Rule-Governed Behavior and Psychological Problems. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 8, 2, 114-156.
Wagner, G. A., & Morris, E. K. (1987). “Superstitious” Behavior in Children. The Psychological Record, 37, 471-488.
Whitbourne, S. K. (October 11, 2014). Why We’re So Superstitious. Psychology Today. Retrieved September 20, 2017 from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/fulfillment-any-age/201410/why-were-so-superstitious
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